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Psychological Disorders – Class 12 Psychology Chapter 4 Notes & NCERT PDF

Class 12PsychologyChapter 4NCERT book: Psychology - Class 12

Notes and a simple summary of Chapter 4 of the NCERT Class 12 Psychology book, with the official chapter PDF, flashcards, an MCQ quiz and an AI tutor for your doubts.

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Chapter 4: Psychological Disorders

Introduction

All of us have felt nervous before an examination or anxious when someone close was unwell. Some people, however, react very strongly to the problems and stresses of life. The chapter quotes Carl Jung: "How can I be substantial without casting a shadow?… I remember once more that I am a human being like any other". It reminds us that psychological difficulties are part of being human. Adaptation is the ability to modify behaviour in response to changing demands; when behaviour cannot be modified, it is maladaptive. Abnormal psychology is the area of psychology focused on maladaptive behaviour – its causes, consequences and treatment. The book stresses that a psychological disorder, which indicates a failure in adaptation, should be viewed as any other illness, and that stigma stops people from seeking help.

Key Concepts

Concepts of Abnormality

  • The four Ds: deviance (different, extreme, unusual), distress (upsetting to the person and others), dysfunction (interfering with daily activities) and danger (to the person or others).
  • Abnormal as deviation from social norms – behaviour that breaks a society's stated or unstated rules. Criticism: it assumes normality is merely conformity.
  • Abnormal as maladaptive – the best criterion is whether behaviour fosters the well-being and growth of the individual and group. Even conforming behaviour can be maladaptive (a student who stays silent despite having questions).

    • Historical Background

  • Supernatural view: evil spirits (bhoot-pret), the devil (shaitan), exorcism, the shaman or ojha.
  • Biological or organic view: the body and brain are not working properly.
  • Psychological view: inadequacies in thinking, feeling or perceiving.
  • Hippocrates, Socrates and Plato developed the organismic approach; Galen described four humours (blood, black bile, yellow bile, phlegm), similar to the Indian vata, pitta, kapha.
  • Middle Ages: demonology and witch-hunts; St. Augustine wrote about mental anguish, laying groundwork for psychodynamic theories.
  • Renaissance: Johann Weyer said 'witches' needed medical, not theological, treatment.
  • Age of Reason and Enlightenment: scientific method, Reform Movement, and deinstitutionalisation (community care for recovered individuals).
  • Today: the interactional or bio-psycho-social approach.

    • Classification

  • DSM-5 – Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, by the American Psychiatric Association.
  • ICD-10 – Classification of Behavioural and Mental Disorders by the WHO, officially used in India.

    • Classification helps professionals communicate and understand causes.

    Factors Underlying Abnormal Behaviour

  • Biological model: faulty genes, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition, injuries. Neurotransmitters: anxiety linked with low GABA, schizophrenia with excess dopamine, depression with low serotonin. Many genes, not a single gene, are involved; biology alone cannot account for most disorders.
  • Psychodynamic model (Freud): abnormal behaviour is a symbolic expression of unconscious conflicts among id, ego and superego.
  • Behavioural model: behaviours are learned through classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning, and can be unlearned.
  • Cognitive model: irrational assumptions and overgeneralisation.
  • Humanistic-existential model: people have a natural drive to self-actualise; existentialists stress freedom and responsibility.
  • Socio-cultural model: war, prejudice, economic problems, enmeshed family structures, lack of social support and societal labels that encourage a sick role.
  • Diathesis-stress model: a diathesis (biological predisposition) creates vulnerability, and pathogenic stressors may turn it into a disorder; applied to anxiety, depression and schizophrenia.

    • Major Psychological Disorders

  • Anxiety disorders (most common category): anxiety is a diffuse, vague, very unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension. Types: generalised anxiety disorder (prolonged, vague fears with hypervigilance and motor tension), panic disorder (recurrent attacks of intense terror), phobias – specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia – and separation anxiety disorder. Deb's case illustrates panic attacks while driving.
  • Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders: obsession is the inability to stop thinking about an idea; compulsion is the need to repeat behaviours such as counting, checking, washing. Related: hoarding, trichotillomania, excoriation.
  • Trauma- and stressor-related disorders: PTSD after disasters, bomb blasts, accidents or war – recurrent dreams, flashbacks, impaired concentration, emotional numbing.
  • Somatic symptom and related disorders: physical symptoms without a physical disease – somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, conversion disorder (loss of body functions such as paralysis or blindness after stress).
  • Dissociative disorders: severance of connections between ideas and emotions – dissociative amnesia (including dissociative fugue), dissociative identity disorder and depersonalisation/derealisation disorder.
  • Depressive disorders: major depressive disorder – depressed mood or loss of interest with changes in weight and sleep, tiredness, poor thinking, guilt and worthlessness. Risk factors: heredity, age, gender, negative life events, lack of social support.
  • Bipolar and related disorders: Bipolar I involves alternating mania and depression; earlier called manic-depressive disorder; others include Bipolar II and Cyclothymic Disorder.
  • Suicide prevention: the book states that suicides are preventable. Previous attempt is the strongest risk factor. WHO measures include limiting access to means, responsible media reporting, alcohol-related policies, early identification and care, training health workers, and community support. Schools should notice warning changes and strengthen self-esteem.
  • Schizophrenia spectrum: positive symptoms (delusions of persecution, reference, grandeur and control; formal thought disorders; hallucinations; inappropriate affect), negative symptoms (alogia, blunted and flat affect, avolition, social withdrawal) and psychomotor symptoms (catatonic stupor, rigidity, posturing).
  • Neurodevelopmental disorders: ADHD (inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity), autism spectrum disorder (social and communication impairments, restricted interests; about 70 per cent have intellectual disability), intellectual disability (IQ about 70 or below with adaptive deficits before 18), specific learning disorder.
  • Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders: ODD and conduct disorder, with verbal, physical, hostile and proactive aggression.
  • Feeding and eating disorders: anorexia nervosa (distorted body image), bulimia nervosa (binge and purge), binge eating.
  • Substance-related and addictive disorders: alcohol, heroin (overdose can paralyse breathing), cocaine; Box 4.3 lists substances under DSM-5.

    • Examples & Activities from the Text

  • Activity 4.1 – ask three people about mental illness to explore common labels.
  • Activity 4.2 – 'abnormal' acts that are normal in context (a traffic policeman waving arms).
  • Activity 4.3 – recall bodily and mental symptoms before the Class X Board exam.
  • Activity 4.5 – identify types of delusions from examples.

    • Key-Facts Sheet

  • Anxiety disorders are the most common category.
  • Delusions of persecution are the most common delusions; auditory hallucinations are most common.
  • Alcohol depresses central nervous system functioning.

    • Board Exam Focus

    Review questions ask about depression and mania, hyperactivity, alcohol, eating disorders, obsessions vs compulsions, schizophrenia symptoms, dissociation, phobias and anxiety.

    Outline 1 – Symptoms of schizophrenia. Define → positive symptoms (delusions, thought disorders, hallucinations, inappropriate affect) → negative symptoms → psychomotor symptoms. Frequent topic-changing is derailment, a positive symptom.

    Outline 2 – Phobia of snakes through faulty learning. Define phobia → three types → behavioural model: classical conditioning, operant reinforcement of avoidance, social learning by observing fearful others.

    Outline 3 – When anxiety becomes a disorder. Normal anxiety motivates → becomes a disorder when distressing and interfering → types from Table 4.1.

    Key Terms

  • Abnormal psychology (असामान्य मनोविज्ञान) – study of maladaptive behaviour
  • Maladaptive (कुसमायोजी) – behaviour not suited to demands
  • Deinstitutionalisation (विसंस्थानीकरण) – community care for recovered persons
  • Diathesis-stress model (प्रवणता-दबाव मॉडल) – predisposition plus stressor
  • Neurotransmitter (तंत्रिकासंचारक) – chemical messenger between neurons
  • Anxiety (दुश्चिंता) – vague unpleasant fear and apprehension
  • Phobia (दुर्भीति) – irrational fear of specific objects or situations
  • Obsession (मनोग्रस्ति) – inability to stop thinking of an idea
  • Compulsion (बाध्यता) – need to repeat behaviours
  • Dissociation (विघटन) – severance of ideas and emotions
  • Delusion (भ्रमासक्ति) – false belief firmly held
  • Hallucination (विभ्रम) – perception without external stimulus
  • Schizophrenia (मनोविदलता) – psychotic disorder with disturbed thought
  • Hyperactivity (अतिक्रियाशीलता) – constant motion, restlessness
  • Stigma (कलंक) – shame that prevents help-seeking

    • Common Mistakes

  • Using everyday "depression" (sadness after loss) to mean major depressive disorder.
  • Confusing delusions (beliefs) with hallucinations (perceptions).
  • Mixing obsessions (thoughts) with compulsions (acts).
  • Calling dissociative identity disorder "schizophrenia" – they are different categories.
  • Self-diagnosing from symptoms: the Pedagogical Hints warn that knowing symptoms is not diagnosing or treating; only trained professionals can.

    • 💡 Key Learning Points

    • ✓Abnormality is described by the four Ds and viewed either as deviation from social norms or as maladaptive behaviour; stigma prevents help-seeking.
    • ✓Views of disorder have moved from supernatural to biological and psychological perspectives, converging in the bio-psycho-social approach; DSM-5 and ICD-10 classify disorders.
    • ✓Biological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, humanistic-existential, socio-cultural and diathesis-stress models explain abnormal behaviour.
    • ✓Major categories include anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, trauma-related, somatic symptom, dissociative, depressive and bipolar disorders; suicides are preventable through early identification and support.
    • ✓Schizophrenia (positive, negative, psychomotor symptoms), neurodevelopmental, conduct, eating and substance-related disorders complete the chapter's survey.

    👨‍🏫 Teaching Tips

    • →Set ground rules before starting: use respectful, person-first language and avoid labelling classmates, as the Pedagogical Hints advise sensitive handling.
    • →Use Activity 4.2 to show that context decides whether behaviour is abnormal, then introduce the four Ds.
    • →Build a timeline from supernatural beliefs to the bio-psycho-social approach.
    • →Prepare a comparison chart of models (biological, psychodynamic, behavioural, cognitive, humanistic-existential, socio-cultural, diathesis-stress).
    • →Use Activity 4.5 to practise identifying types of delusions and distinguish positive from negative symptoms.
    • →Discuss suicide prevention factually using WHO measures and warning signs, and share where students can seek help from counsellors.
    • →Remind students repeatedly not to self-diagnose or try to treat others; this needs trained professionals.

    📋 Assessment Questions

    1. Can the student explain the four Ds and the two views of abnormality with examples?
    2. Can the student describe historical perspectives and the purpose of DSM-5 and ICD-10?
    3. Can the student compare models of abnormal behaviour, especially the diathesis-stress model?
    4. Can the student distinguish major disorders by their key features (e.g., obsessions vs compulsions, positive vs negative symptoms)?
    5. Does the student use respectful, non-stigmatising language when discussing psychological disorders?

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    Keep learning

    All chapters in Psychology - Class 12

    1. 1. Variations in Psychological Attributes
    2. 2. Self and Personality
    3. 3. Meeting Life Challenges
    4. 4. Psychological Disorders
    5. 5. Therapeutic Approaches
    6. 6. Attitude and Social Cognition
    7. 7. Social Influence and Group Processes