Introduction
This chapter examines the growing significance of environmental and resource issues in world politics. Around the Aral Sea, toxic waters destroyed fishing and forced thousands to leave; cultivable land is losing fertility; according to the UNDP Human Development Report 2016, 663 million people in developing countries lack safe water and 2.4 billion lack sanitation. Forests, biodiversity, the ozone layer and coastal waters are all under threat. These issues are political because no single government can address them fully, and because they raise questions of who causes degradation, who pays and who must act — questions of power.
Key Concepts & Events
1. Environmental Concerns in Global Politics
From the 1960s, the environmental effects of growth became political. The Club of Rome published Limits to Growth (1972), dramatising resource depletion against rising population. UNEP held conferences and promoted studies.The 1987 Brundtland Report, 'Our Common Future', warned that traditional economic growth was not sustainable.The UN Conference on Environment and Development — the Earth Summit — in Rio de Janeiro, June 1992, attended by 170 states, thousands of NGOs and many MNCs, firmly consolidated environment in global politics.At Rio the global North focused on ozone depletion and global warming, while the global South wanted to link economic development with environmental management.Rio produced conventions on climate change, biodiversity and forestry and recommended 'Agenda 21'. It agreed on sustainable development — combining growth with ecological responsibility — though critics said Agenda 21 favoured growth over conservation.2. The Global Commons
Commons are resources shared by a community. Global commons (res communis humanitatis) lie outside any state's jurisdiction: the atmosphere, Antarctica, the ocean floor and outer space.Agreements: the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, the 1987 Montreal Protocol, the 1991 Antarctic Environmental Protocol.Antarctica covers 14 million sq km, 26% of the world's wilderness, 90% of terrestrial ice and 70% of fresh water. The UK, Argentina, Chile, Norway, France, Australia and New Zealand claim sovereignty; most states see it as a global commons. Since 1959, activity is limited to research, fishing and tourism.Consensus is hard given vague scientific evidence; the discovery of the ozone hole over Antarctica in the mid-1980s showed both opportunity and danger. Outer space management reflects North–South inequalities in technology.3. Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
The North wants everyone equally responsible now; the South argues most degradation came from the North's industrialisation, so the North must do more, and developing countries should not face the same restrictions.Accepted in the Rio Declaration (1992) as 'common but differentiated responsibilities'. The UNFCCC (1992) asks parties to act "on the basis of equity" and their respective capabilities, acknowledging that most historical emissions came from developed countries.The Kyoto Protocol (1997, Japan) set emission-reduction targets for industrialised countries; China, India and other developing countries were exempted.4. Common Property Resources
Resources owned by a group, whose members have both rights and duties over use and maintenance. They are dwindling due to privatisation, agricultural intensification, population growth and degradation.Sacred groves in India — uncut forest patches dedicated to deities — are managed by village communities, especially in South India; they preserve biodiversity and cultural diversity but face encroachment and conflicts between state ownership and community control.5. India's Stand
India signed and ratified Kyoto in August 2002; it was exempt because its historical emissions were insignificant.At the G-8 meeting (June 2005) India noted that developing countries' per capita emissions are a tiny fraction of the developed world's; the main responsibility lies with developed countries (historical responsibility).India is wary of binding commitments on rapidly industrialising countries. Its per capita emissions were projected to rise from 0.9 tonnes (2000) to 1.6 tonnes (2030) — less than half the world average of 3.8 tonnes in 2000.Efforts: National Auto-fuel Policy; Energy Conservation Act 2001; Electricity Act 2003; natural gas and clean coal; a proposed National Mission on Biodiesel; ratified the Paris Agreement on 2 October 2016; one of the largest renewable energy programmes.India's 1997 review found no meaningful transfer of finance and clean technology to developing countries; it wants SAARC to adopt a common position.6. Environmental Movements
Among the most vibrant social movements, mostly local.Forest movements of the South (Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, Africa, India): Southern forests are peopled, while the North often sees wilderness as a place without people. Wilderness campaigns include protecting Bengal tigers and opposing the ivory trade; many are now called biodiversity issues.Anti-mining: opposition in the Philippines to the Australian Western Mining Corporation (WMC).Anti-dam, pro-river movements: the first in the North was the campaign to save the Franklin River in Australia (early 1980s); in India, the Narmada Bachao Andolan. The shared idea in Indian movements is non-violence.7. Resource Geopolitics
"Who gets what, when, where and how." From the 17th century naval timber was a priority; oil was vital in both World Wars. During the Cold War the North deployed forces, stockpiled resources and backed friendly governments.Oil remains the most important resource. The Gulf produces about 30% of global oil but holds about 64% of known reserves; Saudi Arabia has a quarter of reserves and is the largest producer; Iraq is second in reserves.Water: talk of 'water wars'. Downstream (lower riparian) states object to upstream dams or pollution. Examples: Israel, Syria and Jordan over the Jordan and Yarmuk rivers (1950s–60s); Turkey, Syria and Iraq over dams on the Euphrates.8. Indigenous Peoples and Their Rights
The UN defines them as descendants of those who inhabited a territory when people of another culture arrived and overcame them. About 30 crore live worldwide (Cordillera in the Philippines, the Mapuche of Chile, Chittagong Hill Tracts, North American natives and others).Loss of land is the biggest threat. In India, Scheduled Tribes (nearly 8% of the population) have constitutional protection but are the single largest group displaced by development projects.The World Council of Indigenous Peoples (1975) was the first of 11 indigenous NGOs to get UN consultative status.Timeline
1959 — Antarctic Treaty1972 — Club of Rome's 'Limits to Growth'1987 — Brundtland Report; Montreal Protocol1991 — Antarctic Environmental ProtocolJune 1992 — Earth Summit, Rio; UNFCCC1997 — Kyoto ProtocolAugust 2002 — India ratifies Kyoto2 October 2016 — India ratifies the Paris AgreementPerspectives as Presented
The North stresses equal responsibility now; the South stresses historical responsibility and development needs.Critics of Kyoto argue India and China will soon be leading emitters; India cites low per capita emissions.Board Exam Focus
True/False: the Earth Summit had 170 countries, NGOs and MNCs, was held under the UN and consolidated environment politically — all true.Q: What is 'common but differentiated responsibilities'? Outline: North–South debate → Rio Declaration and UNFCCC → Kyoto exemptions → implementation through finance and technology transfer.Q: Outcomes of Rio? Outline: conventions on climate, biodiversity and forestry; Agenda 21; sustainable development; unresolved North–South differences.Key Terms
Global Commons (विश्व की साझी संपदा)Common Property Resource (साझी संपदा संसाधन)Sustainable Development (टिकाऊ विकास)Earth Summit (पृथ्वी सम्मेलन)Agenda 21 (एजेंडा-21)Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (साझी परंतु अलग-अलग जिम्मेदारियाँ)Greenhouse Gases (ग्रीनहाउस गैसें)Kyoto Protocol (क्योटो प्रोटोकॉल)Sacred Groves (देवराई / पवित्र वन)Resource Geopolitics (संसाधनों की भू-राजनीति)Indigenous Peoples (मूलवासी)Environmental Movement (पर्यावरण आंदोलन)Common Mistakes
Thinking India was bound by Kyoto targets — developing countries were exempted.Confusing global commons (outside any state) with common property (owned by a group).Writing that the North and South had the same agenda at Rio.Mixing up the Montreal Protocol (1987, ozone) with the Kyoto Protocol (1997, greenhouse gases).