The Big Questions
How did foreign invasions and the rise of new dynasties reshape India's political boundaries during this period?How did Indian society respond to invasions? How did India's economy adapt during times of political instability?What impact did this period have on the lives of the people?Introduction
This 'Tapestry of the Past' chapter covers roughly the 13th to 17th centuries (the book uses 'medieval' simply for the 11th–17th centuries, noting the term comes from European history and is not ideal for India). From the early 11th century, invasions from beyond the Hindu Kush — mostly by Central Asian Turkic or Afghan groups — reshaped India's political map. The chapter traces the Delhi Sultanate, the kingdoms that resisted it, the Vijayanagara Empire, the Mughals, and the powers that resisted the Mughals, and ends with administration and people's lives.
The book reminds us: we must know the facts of the past and respect the victims of atrocities, but people today bear no responsibility for actions of individuals hundreds of years ago.
Key Concepts
Rise and fall of the Delhi Sultanate
Formed after the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan in 1192 (the timeline marks the Sultanate's establishment in 1206).Five successive dynasties of Turkic–Afghan origin: Mamluks ('Slave dynasty'), Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis.Successions were often violent: almost two sultans out of three seized power by eliminating their predecessor; an average reign lasted hardly more than nine years.Ala-ud-din Khilji called himself 'Sikander Sani' (the second Alexander) on his coins, raided widely and repelled several Mongol invasions. His general Malik Kafur pushed south and attacked centres such as Srirangam, Madurai and Chidambaram.Muhammad bin Tughlaq ruled most of the Subcontinent — the first time since the Mauryas — but his schemes misfired: shifting the capital to Daulatabad (Devagiri) and back, and a token currency of copper coins that led to counterfeiting.Wealth came from plunder, heavy taxes and slave trade; some sultans imposed the jizya, a tax on non-Muslim subjects. Temples and seats of learning were attacked (iconoclasm). The Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutub Minar complex used materials from 27 destroyed Hindu and Jain temples, as its inscription states.Timur attacked Delhi in 1398, leaving it in ruins; the Lodis became the last Sultanate dynasty.Resistance to the Delhi Sultanate
Eastern Gangas of Kalinga — Narasimhadeva I repelled Sultanate attacks and built the Sūrya temple at Konark.Musunuri Nayakas — united over 75 Telugu chieftains and expelled Tughlaq's army from Warangal (around 1330–1336).Hoysalas — built the temples of Belur and Halebidu; their name comes from the legend 'Hoy (strike)! Sala'; later absorbed into Vijayanagara.Bahmani Sultanate (1347) and sultanates of Gujarat and Bengal broke away.Rana Kumbha of Mewar — built Kumbhalgarh Fort, famous for its 36-km wall.The Vijayanagara Empire
Founded in the 14th century (1336) by the brothers Harihara and Bukka Raya; folklore says their guru Vidyaranya advised them to build the capital where they saw a hare chasing hounds (Hampi).Rivals: the Bahmani Sultanate, which split into five Deccan Sultanates — Bijapur, Golconda, Berar, Ahmednagar and Bidar — and the Gajapatis of Odisha.Titles with pati ('lord'): Narapati (Vijayanagara), Ashwapati (Bahmani), Gajapati (Odisha), Chhatrapati (Marathas).Peak under Krishnadevaraya: patron of Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada; wrote the Telugu epic Āmuktamālyada (with a section on royal policy); supported Tirupati and the Vitthala temple with its 'musical pillars'.After his death (1529), the Deccan Sultanates defeated Ramaraya at the Battle of Talikota (1565); the city was sacked and the empire fragmented under Nayakas.The Mughals
Babur, a descendant of Timur, defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526), using gunpowder, field artillery and matchlocks — ending the Sultanate. His memoir, the Baburnama, shows him as cultured and curious, but also a ruthless conqueror.Humayun lost ground to Sher Shah Suri (Sur Empire, lasting reforms) before reconquering. Himu (Hemchandra Vikramaditya) briefly held Delhi but lost the Second Battle of Panipat (1556) to Akbar.Akbar (emperor at 13; reign 1556–1605): early brutality at Chittor (siege of over five months; about 30,000 civilians massacred; jauhar by Rajput women), then political strategies — marriage alliances, Rajputs at court, abolished the jizya, sulh-i-kul ('peace with all'). His 'house of translation' at Fatehpur Sikri rendered the Mahābhārata (Razmnama), Rāmāyaṇa (176 miniatures), Bhagavad Gītā and Pañchatantra into Persian.Jahangir loved art; Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal; this period saw a peak of architecture, music, calligraphy and miniature painting.Aurangzeb seized the throne by defeating and executing Dara Shikoh and imprisoning Shah Jahan; crowned in 1658 as 'Alamgir'; ruled almost 49 years. The empire reached its greatest extent, but 25 years of Deccan wars drained the treasury. He reimposed the jizya and a pilgrimage tax, and his 1669 order led to temple destruction (Varanasi, Mathura, Somnath). He died in 1707. Average reigns: Mughals up to Aurangzeb about 27 years.Resistance to the Mughals
Jat peasants rebelled with 20,000 men; tribal groups (Bhils, Gonds, Santhals, Kochs) resisted annexation.Rani Durgavati of Garha (Gond kingdom) — 20,000 soldiers and 1,000 elephants; fought Akbar's general in 1564 and died at 40 rather than be captured.Rajputs — Rana Sanga united clans but lost to Babur at Khanwa; Maharana Pratap of Mewar fought at Haldighati (1576) and continued guerrilla warfare with strong support from the Bhils; Durga Das Rathore defended Marwar.Ahoms — migrated from Myanmar in the 13th century; their paik system required every able-bodied man to give labour or military service in exchange for land rights. At the Battle of Saraighat (1671) on the Brahmaputra, Lachit Borphukan's 10,000 men defeated a Mughal force of 30,000.Sikhs — Guru Nanak taught equality and the oneness of God (Ik Onkār). Guru Arjan compiled the Guru Granth Sahib and was tortured to death on Jahangir's orders; Guru Hargobind began martial training. Guru Tegh Bahadur stood for Kashmiri Pandits and was beheaded in Chandni Chowk in 1675 (Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib marks the site). Guru Gobind Singh formed the Khalsa (1699). Maharaja Ranjit Singh later unified the Sikh confederacies into the Sikh Empire (1799).Administering India
Delhi Sultanate: sultan with absolute power assisted by ministers; the iqta system assigned territories to iqtadars to collect taxes (not hereditary). The burden fell heavily on peasants.Mughals under Akbar: Diwan (finance), Mir Bakhshi (military), Khan-i-Saman (public works, trade, household), Sadr (justice, religion, education); twelve provinces (subahs). The mansabdari system ranked officers who maintained troops and animals; they were paid in land (jagirs). Todar Mal reformed revenue with crop surveys. Non-Muslim officials rarely exceeded one-third.People's lives
Roads, bridges, canals and new cities; Mughal coins: silver rupaya, copper dam; the Persian wheel for irrigation.India remained one of the world's wealthiest regions thanks to agriculture, crafts, śhreṇis (guilds), jātis and credit systems. Land revenue was typically one-fifth of produce, sometimes up to one-half.Exports through ports such as Calicut, Mangalore, Surat, Masulipatnam and Hooghly; India exported far more than it imported.The hundi — a written payment instruction — let merchants move money across borders without carrying cash (a precursor of modern banking). Temples were economic hubs (markets, irrigation, credit).Wealth was concentrated among rulers and merchants; famines and warfare hurt common people. Yet people of different faiths largely lived side by side, and a shared heritage emerged.Think About It / Let's Explore
Why might Ala-ud-din Khilji call himself 'the second Alexander'?Why were many forts built in hilly, forested places? Discuss pros and cons.Compare the maps of the Tughlaq/Lodi period, the Deccan, and the Mughal era — what 'reshaping' do you see?How did geography help the Ahoms defend themselves?Why use the neutral word 'image' rather than 'idol' or 'icon'?Key Terms
Sultanate (सल्तनत) — territory ruled by a SultanJizya (जज़िया) — tax on non-Muslim subjectsIconoclasm (मूर्तिभंजन) — destruction of religious imagesIqta (इक़्ता) — land assigned to nobles for tax collectionMansabdari (मनसबदारी) — Mughal ranking system of officersJagir (जागीर) — land assigned as paymentSubah (सूबा) — Mughal provinceSulh-i-kul (सुलह-ए-कुल) — 'peace with all'Jauhar (जौहर) — mass self-immolation to avoid capturePaik system (पाइक प्रथा) — Ahom service-for-land systemKhalsa (खालसा) — martial brotherhood formed by Guru Gobind SinghGuerrilla warfare (छापामार युद्ध) — surprise attacks by small groups using terrainHundi (हुंडी) — written payment instructionŚhreṇi (श्रेणी) — guildMap & Timeline Corner
1206 Delhi Sultanate · 1326 Mewar re-established · 1336 Vijayanagara · 1347 Bahmani Sultanate · 1398 Timur attacks Delhi · 1498 Portuguese arrive1526 First Panipat · 1556 Second Panipat · 1565 Talikota · 1576 Haldighati · 1671 Saraighat · 1699 Khalsa · 1754 Maratha control of Delhi begins · 1799 Sikh EmpireConnect to Today
Monuments from this era — Konark, Hampi, Kumbhalgarh, the Taj Mahal — are World Heritage treasures. The hundi idea lives on in modern banking, and the Sikh Regiment still salutes Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib at the Republic Day parade (since 1979).
Common Mistakes
Treating the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire as the same dynasty — the Mughals began with Babur in 1526, after the Sultanate.Mixing up the Panipat battles: First (1526, Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi), Second (1556, Akbar vs Himu).Confusing Talikota (1565) with Haldighati (1576).Assuming Akbar was tolerant all his life — the chapter shows early brutality and later change.Blaming people today for events of the past — the book explicitly warns against this.Questions and Activities (hints)
Compare Sultanate and Mughal strategies: force and plunder vs alliances, administration (mansabdari) and tolerance under Akbar.Why did Vijayanagara and the Ahoms resist longer? — geography (rivers, hills), strong leadership, the paik system, alliances.Write as a scholar at Akbar's or Krishnadevaraya's court; imagine a trader in Surat, Calicut or Hooghly.